美国历史1931－1940

h**tory of the united states (1918–1945)非常好的网站,但是不知道你能不能看到...不过希望你不要全盘照抄.the great depressionmain article: great depressionin 1929, the world's most prosperous nation was the united states. but despite the buoyant optim**m in the united states and the apparent economic well-being in other industrialized countries, the world economy could not withstand a depression that originated in the u.s. and spread across the globe in a matter of months.gdp in united states jan 1929 to jan 1941h**torians and econom**ts still h**e not agreed on the causes of the great depression, but there ** general agreement it began in the united states in late 1929, and was either started or worsened by the "black thursday", the stock market crash of thursday, october 24, 1929. sectors of the u.s. economy had been showing some signs of d**tress for months before october 1929. business inventories of all types were three times as large as they had been a year before (an indication that the public was not buying products as rapidly as in the past); and other signposts of economic healthfreight carloads, industrial production, wholesale prices—were slipping downward.the events in the united states triggered a world-wide depression, which led to deflation and a great increase in unemployment.[edit] the roosevelt admin**trationmain article: new dealdorothea lange's migrant mother, depicts destitute pea pickers in california, centering on a mother of seven children, age thirty-two, in nipomo, california, march 1936.[edit] the great depression and the election of 1932the wall street stock market crash had ushered in a world-wide financial cr****. in the united states between 1929 and 1933, unemployment soared from 3% of the workforce to 25%, while manufacturing output collapsed by one-third.where it ex**ted, local relief was overwhelmed.thrown out of their homes, the unemployed and poor moved into "hoovervilles".for many, their next meal was found at a soup kitchen, if at all.adding to the m**ery of the times, drought arrived in the great plains in 1933. by 1934, the plains had been turned to a desert dust bowl. those who had lost their homes and livelihoods were lured westward by advert**ements for work put out by agribusiness in western states, such as california. the migrants came to be called okies, a**es, and other derogatory names as they flooded the labor supply of the agricultural fields, driving down wages, pitting desperate worker against desperate worker.in the south, the always fragile economy collapsed further. to escape, rural workers and sharecroppers migrated north by train with hopes to work in auto plants around detroit. in the great lakes states, farmers had been experiencing depressed market conditions for their crops and goods since the end of world war i. family farms that had been mortgaged during the 1920s to provide money to “get through until better times” saw foreclosure as their owners failed to make payments.worldwide, desperate **s sought economic recovery by adopting restrictive auta**c policies--high tariffs, import quotas, and barter agreements--and by experimenting with new plans for their internal economies. britain adopted far-reaching measures in the development of a planned national economy. in nazi germany, economic recovery was pursued through rearmament, conscription, and public works programs. in mussolini's italy, the economic controls of h** corporate state were tightened. some observers throughout the world saw in the massive program of economic planning and state ownership of the soviet union what appeared to be a depression-proof economic system and a solution to the cr**** in capital**m.in the united states, upon accepting democratic nomination for president in 1932, franklin d. roosevelt (known as "fdr") prom**ed "a new deal for the american people," a phrase that has endured as a label for h** admin**tration and its many domestic achievements. the republicans, blamed for the depression, or at least for lack of an adequate response to it, were easily defeated by fdr.unlike many other world leaders in the 1930s, however, roosevelt entered office with no single ideology or plan for dealing with the depression. th** "new deal" would be often contradictory, pragmatic, and experimental. what some considered incoherence of the new deal's ideology, however, was the presence of several competing ones, based on programs and ideas not without precedents in the american political tradition.the new deal cons**ted of many different efforts to end the great depression and reform the american economy. many of them failed, but there were enough successes to establ**h it as the most important ep**ode of the twentieth century in the creation of the modern american state.[edit] the first hundred daysthe desperate economic situation, combined with the substantial democratic victories in the 1932 congressional elections, g**e roosevelt unusual influence over congress in the "first hundred days" of h** admin**tration. he used h** leverage to win rapid passage of a series of measures to prop up the faltering banking system, reform the stock market, aid the unemployed, and induce industrial and agricultural recovery.[edit] the "bank holiday" and the emergency banking actroosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through h** declaration that "the only thing we h**e to fear ** fear itself" and h** "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal alone to help restore the nation's confidence.on march 6, two days after taking office, fdr **sued a proc**tion closing all american banks for four days until congress could meet in a special session. ordinarily, such an action would cause widespread panic. but the action created a general sense of relief. first, many states had already closed down the banks before march 6. second, roosevelt astutely and euphem**tically described it as a "bank holiday." and third, the action demonstrated that the federal ** was stepping in to stop the alarming pattern of bank failures.three days later, president roosevelt sent to congress the emergency banking act, a generally conservative bill, drafted in large part by holdovers from the hoover admin**tration, designed primarily to protect large banks from being dragged down by the failing smaller ones. the bill provided for treasury department inspection of all banks before they would be allowed to reopen, for federal ass**tance to tottering large institutions, and for a thorough reorganization of those in greatest difficulty. a confused and frightened congress passed the bill within four hours of its introduction. three-quarters of the banks in the federal reserve system reopened within the next three days, and $1 billion in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month. the immediate banking cr**** was over.[edit] the economy acton the morning after passage of the emergency banking act, roosevelt sent to congress the economy act, which was designed to convince the public, and moreover the business community, that the federal ** was in the hands of no radical. the act proposed to balance the federal budget by cutting the salaries of ** employees and reducing pensions to veterans by as much as 15%.otherw**e, roosevelt warned, the nation faced a $1 billion deficit. the bill revealed clearly what roosevelt had always maintained: that he was as much of a f**cal conservative at heart as h** predecessor was. and like the banking bill, it passed through congress almost instantly-- despite heated protests by some congressional progressives.[edit] farm programsthe celebrated first hundred days of the new admin**tration also produced a federal program to protect american farmers from the uncertainties of the market through subsides and production controls, the agricultural adjustment act (aaa), which congress passed in may 1933. the aaa reflected the desires of leaders of various farm organizations and roosevelt's secretary of agriculture, henry a. wallace.relative farm incomes had been falling for decades. the aaa included rewo**ngs of many long-touted programs for agrarian relief, which had been demanded for decades. the most important prov**ion of the aaa was the prov**ion for crop reductions--the "domestic allotment" system, which was intended to ra**e prices for farm commodities.the most controversial component of the anti-deflationary domestic allotment system was the large-scale destruction of ex**ting crops and livestock to reduce surpluses. at a time in which many families were suffering from malnutrition and downright starvation, it was a difficult measure. however, gross farm incomes increased by half in the first three years of the new deal and the relative position of farmers improved significantly for the first time in twenty years.[edit] other initiativesthe first hundred days also saw the creation of a new federal regulatory agency to oversee the stock market, the u.s. securities and exchange comm**sion (sec), a reform of the banking system that included a system of insurance for deposits. but the most successful in alleviating the m**eries of the great depression were a series of relief measures to aid some of the 15 million unemployed americans, among them the civilian conservation corps (ccc), the civil works admin**tration (cwa), and the federal emergency relief admin**tration (fera).the early new deal also began the tennessee valley authority (tva), an unprecedented experiment in flood control, public power, and regional planning.[edit] the national industrial recovery act (nira)roosevelt realized that these initial actions were nothing but stopgaps, that more comprehensive ** programs would be necessary. in the roughly three years between the great crash and fdr's first hundred days, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of falling prices and production (deflation). desperate for salvation, many business owners demanded that the ** enforce trade association agreements to help ra**e prices.the roosevelt admin**tration, under increasing pressure to do more to alleviate unemployment, ins**ted that business would h**e to ensure that the incomes of workers would r**e along with their prices. the result was the national industrial recovery act (nira), the most important undertaking of the first hundred days, passed by the congress in june 1933. to implement the nira, two new federal agencies, the national recovery admin**tration (nra) and the works progress admin**tration (wpa) were created.these and other early initiatives created broad popular support for the roosevelt admin**tration and halted the rapid unr**eling of the financial system. they did not, however, end, or even significantly abate, the great depression and the attendant suffering of the people.[edit] setbacks of roosevelt's second termalthough roosevelt's landslide 1936 victory produced large democratic majorities in both houses of congress, which led to predictions of great new achievements from the president's supporters, the admin**tration encountered a long string of frustrations. ambitious reform ideas often floundered because of bureaucratic constraints, such as the absence of a ** bureaucracy with sufficient strength and expert**e to admin**ter them, and because of r**ing business opposition.political constraints were crippling both in congress and among the public at large, where conservative inhibitions remained strong. however, the supreme court would perhaps be the most formidable opponent. several crucial new deal programs violated conservative constitutional theory. the nra, the aaa, and others were invalidated by the court, which was dominated by conservatives with a narrow view of the interstate commerce clause of the constitution, the bas** of much new deal leg**lation.[edit] the recession of 1937 and recoverythe roosevelt admin**tration was under assault during fdr's second term, which presided over a new dip in the great depression, beginning in the fall of 1937 and continuing through most of 1938. it was, in the largest measure, a result of a premature effort by the admin**tration to balance the budget by reducing federal spending. the admin**tration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against business monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the new dip.but the admin**tration's other response to the 1937 dip had more tangible results. ignoring h** own treasury department, roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning h** efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power and attack deflation.roosevelt explained h** program in a fireside chat in which he finally acknowledged that it was up to the ** to "create an economic upturn" by making "additions to the purchasing power of the nation."[edit] world war ii and the end of the great depressionit was not until the admin**tration was forced into large scale federal spending to support world war ii, that the nation's economy fully recovered.between 1939 and 1944 (the peak of wartime production), the nation's output almost doubled. consequently, unemployment plummeted--from 14% in 1940 to less than 2% in 1943, as the labor force grew by ten million. the war economy was not so much a triumph of free enterpr**e as the result of ** bankrolling business. while unemployment remained high throughout the new deal years; consumption, investment, and net exports--the pillars of economic growth--remained low. it was world war ii, not the new deal, which finally ended the cr****. nor did the new deal substantially alter the d**tribution of power within american society and economy; and it had only a small impact on the d**tribution of wealth among the population.[edit] legacies of the new dealalthough the new deal did not end the depression, many believe that it helped to prevent the economy from decaying further by increasing the regulatory functions of the federal ** in ways that helped stabilize previous trouble areas of the economy: the stock market, the banking system, and others. it also produced a new political coalition that sustained the democratic party as the majority party in national politics for more than a generation after its own end.national debt/ gnp climbs from 20% to 40% under hoover; levels off under fdr; soars during ww2 from h**torical states us (1976)laying the foundations for the postwar era, roosevelt and the new deal helped enhance the power of the federal ** as a whole. fdr also establ**hed the presidency as the preeminent center of authority within the federal **. by creating a large array of protections for various groups of citizens-- workers, farmers, and others--who suffered from the cr****, enabling them to challenge the powers of the corporations, the roosevelt admin**tration generated a set of political ideas-- known to later generations as new deal liberal**m--that remained a source of inspiration for decades and that help shape the next experiment in liberal reform, the great society of the 1960s.on the other hand, the roosevelt admin**tration and its 'liberal**m' became the source of a vigorous 'conservative' reaction. led in congress by senator robert a. taft and the conservative coalition, they blocked almost all new deal proposals after 1936, and shut down the wpa, ccc and many other programs by 1943. eventually in the 1970s and 1980s a bipart**an coalition ended most but not all new deal regulations and programs. the most important remaining ones in the 21st century are social security and the security and exchange comm**sion.[edit] world war iifor details, see the main homefront-united states-world war ii article.**olation**t sentiment with regard to foreign wars in america had ebbed, but the united states at first declined to enter the war, limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons via lend lease to britain, the republic of china, and the soviet union. american feeling changed drastically with the sudden japanese attack on pearl harbor. the u.s. enthusiastically went to war against the empire of japan, italy, and nazi germany. italy surrendered in 1943, followed by germany and japan in 1945.after winning a bitter contest for re-election to unprecedented third and fourth terms roosevelt died on april 12, 1945. harry s. truman continued most of roosevelt's wartime policies, but changed h** cabinet. on august 6, 1945, the u.s. dropped an **ic bomb on hiroshima, japan, followed on august 9 by a second **ic bomb on nagasaki. japan surrendered a few days later, and was occupied by the americans under douglas macarthur and its politics and economy transformed, in new-deal fashion.the u.s. domestic scene in world war ii was relatively peaceful, marred only be racial tensions in larger cities and riots in detroit. some german and italian aliens were rounded up and interned. about 100,000 japanese citizens on the west coast and their children were interned by the u.s. **.the united nations (un) was establ**hed on october 24, 1945 to serve as a world body to help prevent future world wars. by a vote of 65 to 7, the united states senate, on december 4, 1945 approved u.s. participation in the un. th** marked a turn away from the traditional interest in strategic local conerns of the u.s. and toward more international involvement. 20210311